Safety and efficacy of waterproof casting for early onset scoliosis.

PURPOSE: The efficacy of traditional Mehta casting in the treatment of early onset scoliosis (EOS) is well-established. However, waterproof casting has not been previously described. Inherent advantages of waterproof casting include clearance for bathing/swimming, avoiding cast holidays, and improved family satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to assess the safety and efficacy of waterproof serial casting at controlling curve progression in EOS. METHODS: The current study is an IRB-approved Level IV retrospective consecutive cohort of EOS patients who underwent a serial 75% body weight traction-elongation-flexion Mehta cast protocol with waterproof cast padding. The addition of 3-point apical translation with stockinettes was utilized during casting. Bracing was initiated after correction < 15° or 1 year of serial casting. RESULTS: Seventeen patients at mean age 21.6 months, with pre-cast Cobb angle 52.3° (R: 35°-82°), underwent serial waterproof casting. In-cast correction index was 64%; for post-cast, Cobb angle was 18.6°. At mean 5.6 years follow-up (R: 2.3-8.9 years), 82% successfully avoided surgical intervention, 53% maintained correction < 25°, and 29% are considered "cured". 3/17 (18%) underwent a 2nd round of casting, and a total of 3/17 (18%) ultimately required surgery at 6.2 years post-casting. No major cast-related complications, decubiti, or cast holidays were encountered. CONCLUSION: Serial waterproof casting is safe and efficacious in EOS when compared to published results of traditional Mehta casting. Of 17 patients with mean pre-cast Cobb 52.3°, 82% successfully avoided surgery and 53% maintained mild curves < 25° magnitude at 5.6 years follow-up. No major complications or skin decubiti occurred, and advantages include clearance for bathing and avoidance of need for cast holidays during treatment. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV.

Waterproof Hip Spica Casts for Pediatric Femur Fractures.

BACKGROUND: Hip spica casting is the treatment of choice for femur fractures in children ages 6 months to 5 years. Traditional spica (TS) casting utilizes cotton padding that precludes patient bathing. Waterproof (WP) casting has inherent advantages, including clearance for bathing and improved family satisfaction. This study examines the safety and efficacy of WP hip spica casting for the treatment of pediatric femur fractures. METHODS: This is a retrospective, matched cohort study of patients ≤5 years with a femur fracture treated with hip spica casting. Patients with WP casts were matched to patients with TS casts by age, sex, and fracture type. TS casts utilize a Goretex liner and cotton padding, while WP spicas utilize fully WP materials and can be completely submerged in water. RESULTS: Fifty patients were included (25 WP, 25 TS) without differences between cohorts in age, weight, or sex. There were no differences in operative time, length of stay, or length of time in cast. Patient charges were significantly lower in the WP group ($230 vs. $301, P <0.001). At cast-off, coronal/sagittal alignment and shortening were similar, while 9 TS patients had minor skin and/or cast complications that required outpatient repair versus only 1 WP patient ( P <0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In a matched comparison, WP spica casting significantly reduces skin and cast complications traditionally associated with cotton-based spica casting, with significantly lower charges for WP cast materials. Fracture healing rate, alignment, and shortening at cast-off are similar in WP versus TS casts. WP spica casting is safe and efficacious for pediatric femur fractures, with the inherent advantage of clearance for bathing. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 3.

Do Preoperative Supine Radiographs Predict Postoperative Residual Lumbar Curvatures in Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis? A Retrospective Cohort Study.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective comparative study. OBJECTIVES: This study compares supine vs bending flexibility radiographs and evaluates their ability to predict residual postoperative lumbar curvature after selective thoracic fusion for Lenke 1 and 2 curves across different lumbar modifiers (A, B, and C) in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). METHODS: This was a retrospective review of AIS Lenke 1 and 2 patients who underwent posterior fusion. All patients had preoperative flexibility radiographs including side-bending and supine posteroanterior (PA) films, in addition to pre- and post-operative standing PA and lateral radiographs. We used SurgiMap 2.0 software for all radiographic measurements. Pearson correlations and linear regression models were developed in SAS. RESULTS: A total of 86 patients were included mean age 14.9 years and follow-up 72.3 months. Preoperative supine lumbar Cobb angle and preoperative side-bending Cobb angles had similar, positive correlations with postoperative lumbar Cobb angle, r = .55 (P < .001) and r = .54 (P < .001), respectively. Three regression models were built to predict postoperative lumbar Cobb angles from preoperative information: Model S (R2 = .39) uses preoperative supine lumbar curve; Model B (R2 = .44) uses preoperative side-bending lumbar curve; Model SB (R2 = .49) uses both preoperative supine and side-bending lumbar curves. Model S and B performed just as well as Model SB. CONCLUSION: Either supine or side-bending radiographs alone may be used to estimate mean residual postoperative lumbar curvature after selective posterior thoracic fusion, but little is to be gained by taking both supine and side-bending radiographs.

The Sagittal Plane in Spinal Fusion for Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis.

Sagittal balance is widely recognized as the primary determinant of optimal outcomes in adult spinal deformity. In adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS), coronal correction risks being obtained at the expense of sagittal malalignment after posterior spinal fusion. Apical lordosis, often underestimated on two-dimensional imaging, is the primary deforming factor in AIS. Failure to restore thoracic kyphosis and lumbar lordosis during posterior spinal fusion contributes to problematic early surgical complications, including proximal or distal junctional kyphosis and failure. Although adolescent patients often compensate for sagittal imbalance in the short-term and mid-term, late sequelae of iatrogenic sagittal imbalance include flatback syndrome, disk degeneration, cervical kyphosis, and late decompensation. Objective criteria using spinopelvic parameters and preoperative three-dimensional planning can guide sagittal plane correction during PSF for AIS. Technical caveats can help avoid sagittal plane complications, including instrumentation level selection, anchor type, and anatomic protection of adjacent levels. Other surgical techniques to optimize restoration of thoracic kyphosis include higher implant density, stiffer rod material, Ponte osteotomies, and deformity correction technique.

Cast-Related Complications.

Despite advances in surgical techniques and technology, casting remains an important treatment modality in the armamentarium of orthopedic surgery. Opportunities for skill development and complication management are a decreasing commodity for the surgeon in training. Appropriate indications for casting and technical expertise of cast application are key to complication avoidance. Prompt recognition and evaluation of potential complications are key to optimizing patient outcomes. Following the lead of the American Board of Orthopedic Surgery Resident Skills Modules, we implore teaching institutions to develop and maintain robust teaching programs, skills acquisitions laboratories, and assessments for confirmation of competency for all residency programs.

Evaluation of Limited Screw Density Pedicle Screw Constructs in Posterior Fusions for Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective case series. OBJECTIVES: To compare radiographic and clinical outcomes in posterior spine fusions with pedicle screw instrumentation of varying screw densities in the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Posterior spinal fusion with pedicle screw instrumentation is the mainstay of surgical treatment for AIS. The most commonly used construct consists of screws placed at every level on the concave side of the deformity and nearly every level on the convex side. However, some surgeons have begun using constructs with fewer pedicle screws. The literature comparing outcomes of these differing pedicle screw constructs is limited. METHODS: Fifty-two consecutive cases of posterior spinal fusions for AIS performed by four surgeons were reviewed. High screw density constructs were used in 26 cases and limited screw density constructs in 26 cases. Construct characteristics and radiographic measurements were compared preoperatively and at last follow-up. Operative time and estimated costs were also evaluated. Student t tests were used to compare the groups with p < .05 considered significant. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in magnitude of correction for the high versus limited screw density group initially (38.5° vs. 34.9°, p = .093) or at final follow-up (36.9° vs. 32.2°, p = .054). Sagittal alignment, coronal balance, and translation of the major apical vertebra were comparable and stable in both groups. The high versus limited screw density group utilized significantly more pedicle screws (16.8 vs. 11.6 screws, p < .0001), had longer operative times (309 vs. 267 minutes, p = .007), and had additional estimated direct costs of $5,800. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent curve correction, stability, and balance can be achieved using fewer screws than commonly used in posterior pedicle screw fusions for AIS. Operative time is reduced, and risk and cost are decreased with the use of limited screw density constructs. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Current Strategies for the Management of Pediatric Supracondylar Humerus Fractures: Tips and Techniques for Successful Closed Treatment.

Pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures are the most commonly encountered type of elbow fractures in children that require surgical fixation. Many pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures can be treated with closed reduction and percutaneous skeletal fixation. In difficult fractures, adjunct pin techniques, such as joystick wires and leverage pins, can be used to help attain a satisfactory and stable reduction before an open approach is used. After the fracture is reduced, optimal pinning, with the use of either crossed or lateral-entry techniques, and fixation that achieves maximal spread at the fracture site as well as bicortical engagement in both fragments are essential to maintain reduction and avoid complications that are associated with malunion. A practical approach as well as several tips and techniques may help surgeons attain and maintain stable closed reduction of pediatric supracondylar humerus fractures.

Open Reduction Techniques for Supracondylar Humerus Fractures in Children.

Supracondylar humerus fractures are the most common elbow fractures in children. Displaced supracondylar humerus fractures that are associated with neurologic and/or vascular injuries should be treated with timely reduction via closed techniques. If closed reduction fails, reduction via open techniques is indicated. There is controversy about which surgical approach yields the best cosmetic and functional outcomes while minimizing postoperative complications. Open reduction, if indicated, has been reported to yield good outcomes in patients in whom closed reduction fails.

The Difficult Supracondylar Humerus Fracture: Flexion-Type Injuries.

Although flexion-type supracondylar humerus fractures account for a minority of all supracondylar humerus fractures, they warrant special attention because of their relatively high rate of requirement for open reduction and their potential for ulnar nerve injury or entrapment. The severity of flexion-type supracondylar humerus fractures may be difficult to appreciate on initial radiographs; therefore, surgeons must have a high index of suspicion in the evaluation of a patient who has a suspected flexion-type supracondylar humerus fracture. Nondisplaced or minimally displaced flexion-type supracondylar humerus fractures can be treated with long arm casting. Displaced flexion-type supracondylar humerus fractures require surgical reduction and stabilization. The unique instability of and reduction position for flexion-type supracondylar humerus fractures make reduction and pinning more of a challenge compared with the more common extension-type supracondylar humerus fractures; therefore, special considerations are required in the surgical setup and planning for flexion-type supracondylar humerus fractures.

Transphyseal Distal Humerus Fracture.

Transphyseal distal humerus fractures typically occur in children younger than 3 years secondary to birth trauma, nonaccidental trauma, or a fall from a small height. Prompt and accurate diagnosis of a transphyseal distal humerus fracture is crucial for a successful outcome. Recognizing that the forearm is not aligned with the humerus on plain radiographs may aid in the diagnosis of a transphyseal distal humerus fracture. Surgical management is most commonly performed with the aid of an arthrogram. Closed reduction and percutaneous pinning techniques similar to those used for supracondylar humerus fractures are employed. Cubitus varus caused by a malunion, osteonecrosis of the medial condyle, or growth arrest is the most common complication encountered in the treatment of transphyseal distal humerus fractures. A corrective lateral closing wedge osteotomy can be performed to restore a nearly normal carrying angle.

Transphyseal Fracture of the Distal Humerus.

Transphyseal fractures of the distal humerus typically occur in children younger than 3 years secondary to birth trauma, nonaccidental trauma, or a fall from a small height. Prompt and accurate diagnosis of the injury is crucial for a successful outcome. Recognizing that the forearm is not aligned with the humerus on plain radiography can aid in the diagnosis of the injury. Surgical management is most commonly performed with the aid of an arthrogram. Closed reduction and percutaneous pinning techniques similar to those used for supracondylar humerus fractures are employed. The most common complication is cubitus varus caused by a malunion, osteonecrosis of the medial condyle, or growth arrest. A corrective lateral closing wedge osteotomy can be performed to restore a nearly normal carrying angle.

Open Reduction Techniques for Supracondylar Humerus Fractures in Children.

Supracondylar humerus fractures are the most common elbow fractures in children. Displaced supracondylar humerus fractures that are associated with neurologic and/or vascular injuries are treated with timely reduction through closed techniques. When closed techniques fail, reduction by open methods is indicated. Controversy exists as to which surgical approach yields the best outcomes in terms of cosmetic and functional results, while minimizing postoperative complications. Open reduction, when indicated, has been shown to yield good outcomes when closed reduction methods fail.

The effects of hypothyroidism on the proximal femoral physis in miniature swine.

As a potential means of comparing hypothyroidism in humans, this work intended to establish a defined hypothyroid state in immature miniature swine and evaluate specific molecular, cellular, and extracellular responses of their growth plates. Two male, 11-week-old Sinclair miniature swine were given 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) in their water and two other like animals (controls) were provided water without PTU. Blood levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), triiodothyronine (T3), and thyroxin (T4) were monitored weekly. At 25 weeks of age, the hind limb proximal femoral physes were harvested and divided into portions for histology and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis. Compared to controls, swine administered PTU exhibited increased TSH and decreased T3 and T4 serum levels during the study period, features consistent with a hypothyroid state. Compared to controls, hypothyroid swine exhibited structurally altered physes and demonstrated significantly decreased gene expression of aggrecan (p < 0.05) and type X collagen (p ≤ 0.1). This is the first hypothyroid model established in miniature swine and represents a potentially important advance for understanding the condition in humans, in which, like this swine model, there are changes critical to growth plate molecular biology, biochemistry and structure.

A prospective comparison of computer-navigated and fluoroscopic-guided in situ fixation of slipped capital femoral epiphysis.

BACKGROUND: Slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) is usually treated with percutaneous in situ screw fixation to prevent further progression of deformity. The purpose of this investigation is to compare computer navigation (CN) techniques with traditional fluoroscopic (fluoro) techniques for in situ fixation of SCFE. METHODS: This study was an IRB-approved prospective study of 39 hip pinnings in 33 children. CN techniques were used in 22 cases and fluoro in 17. The CN and fluoro groups were statistically similar in terms of grade and acuity of the slip. Children were assigned to the groups based on the intraoperative imaging technique used by the attending on call, with 3 surgeons in each group taking equal amounts of call. The "approach-withdraw" technique was used in all cases. Postoperative limited-cut, reduced-dose computed tomography (CT) scans were obtained to evaluate screw placement. This included blinded analysis for screw penetration of the joint, screw tip-to-apex distance, the distance the screw passed to the center of the physis, and attainment of center-center position. The number of pin passes, intraoperative radiation exposure, and operating room (OR) time were also analyzed. Statistics used included ANOVA, the χ and median tests. RESULTS: Compared with the fluoro group, CN resulted in more accurate screw placement. There was 1 case of joint penetration in the fluoro group not appreciated intraoperatively but detected on postoperative CT. CN also resulted in statistically significant (P < 0.05) reduced screw tip-to-apex distance and distance to the center of the physis. There was no statistically significant difference between the 2 groups in attainment of the center-center position, number of pin passes, or intraoperative radiation exposure. OR time averaged 19 minutes longer in the CN group. There was no case of avascular necrosis or chondrolysis in either of the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with traditional fluoro techniques, CN in situ fixation of SCFE results in more accurate screw placement, comparable number of pin passes and intraoperative radiation exposure, and increased OR time. The cost-benefit ratio of this technology requires careful consideration at each individual institution. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: II.

Comparison of compensatory curve spontaneous derotation after selective thoracic or lumbar fusions in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective review of a multicenter prospectively collected series of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) patients. OBJECTIVE: To compare uninstrumented compensatory curve spontaneous derotation of the rib hump and lumbar prominence after selective lumbar or thoracic fusions in AIS. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Coronal correction of the unfused minor curve after selective fusions in AIS has been well-documented previously. However, little has been reported regarding spontaneous correction in the axial plane of the unfused minor curve after selective AIS surgery. METHODS: Patients with minimum 2-year follow-up after either a selective thoracic fusion (STF) (lowest instrumented vertebrae L2 or above), or a selective lumbar fusion (upper instrumented vertebrae T9 or below) for AIS, with an initial scoliometer value of >or=5 degrees in the minor curve were analyzed. Prospectively acquired preoperative and 2-year postoperative radiographic and scoliometer measurements of both the fused and unfused curves were compared using repeated measures and univariate analysis of variance. The data were checked for normality and equal variances, and the level of significance was set at P

Return of shoulder girdle function after anterior versus posterior adolescent idiopathic scoliosis surgery.

STUDY DESIGN: Multicenter, prospective, cohort study. OBJECTIVE: To compare minimum 2-year postoperative shoulder function after 3 different surgical approaches for the treatment of primary thoracic curves in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS). SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Thoracic spinal instrumentation and fusion can be performed via posterior (PSF), open anterior (OASF), or thoracoscopic anterior (TASF) techniques. Although the morbidity of these 3 surgical approaches is beginning to be understood, no reports have been published comparing 2-year postoperative shoulder strength and range of motion. METHODS: AIS patients who underwent selective fusion of primary thoracic curves were studied. Right-sided shoulder strength (flexion, abduction) and range of motion (flexion, extension, abduction) measurements were collected prospectively at selected intervals. An arbitrary threshold (80% of preoperative value) was defined as postoperative return of normal shoulder function. Univariate analysis of variance (P < 0.05) was used to compare differences in shoulder function for the 3 approaches at each postoperative time-point. RESULTS: Ninety-two patients with minimum 2-year postoperative shoulder function data were included in this study (24 PSF, 32 OASF, and 36 TASF). On average, patients who had an OASF failed to reach the 80% threshold for right shoulder forward flexion and abduction strength until 1-year and 6-months after surgery, respectively; whereas patients that had a TASF or PSF returned to normal shoulder strength by the 3-month follow-up visit. With regards to ROM, patients in all 3 groups surpassed the 80% preoperative threshold for right shoulder active forward flexion and extension by the 6-week visit, with no clinically significant differences between the groups. However, for active abduction range of motion, patients that had an OASF required 3-months to regain 80% of their preoperative motion, compared to 6-weeks for patients in both the TASF and PSF groups. CONCLUSION: Approach-related differences in shoulder morbidity do exist in the treatment of primary thoracic curves in AIS. Specifically, OASF imparts a significantly greater magnitude and duration of postoperative shoulder dysfunction than do the TASF or PSF approaches. Nonetheless, these negative effects are transient as shoulder function in those patients treated via an open thoracotomy normalized by the 1-year postoperative time-point at the latest. Accordingly, viewed in isolation, shoulder morbidity should not deter surgeons from using an open anterior approach in the surgical treatment of AIS.

Testing of a new one-stage bone-transport surgical procedure exploiting the periosteum for the repair of long-bone defects.

BACKGROUND: A recently proposed one-stage bone-transport surgical procedure exploits the intrinsic osteogenic potential of the periosteum while providing mechanical stability through intramedullary nailing. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of this technique to bridge massive long-bone defects in a single stage. METHODS: With use of an ovine femoral model, an in situ periosteal sleeve was elevated circumferentially from healthy diaphyseal bone, which was osteotomized and transported over an intramedullary nail into a 2.54-cm (1-in) critical-sized diaphyseal defect. The defect-bridging and bone-regenerating capacity of the procedure were tested in five groups of seven animals each, which were defined by the absence (Group 1; control) or presence of the periosteal sleeve alone (Group 2), bone graft within the periosteal sleeve (Groups 3 and 5), as well as retention of adherent, vascularized cortical bone chips on the periosteal sleeve with or without bone graft (Groups 4 and 5). The efficacy of the procedure was assessed qualitatively and quantitatively. RESULTS: At sixteen weeks, osseous bridging of the defect was observed in all twenty-eight experimental sheep in which the periosteal sleeve was retained; the defect persisted in the remaining seven control sheep. Among the experimental groups 2 through 5, significant differences were observed in the density of the regenerated bone tissue; the two groups in which vascularized bone chips adhered to the inner surface of the periosteal sleeve (Groups 4 and 5) showed a higher mean bone density in the defect zone (p < 0.02) than did the other groups. In these two groups with the highest bone density, the addition of bone graft was associated with a significantly lower callus density than that observed without bone graft (p < 0.05). The volume of regenerate bone (p < 0.02) was significantly greater in the groups in which the periosteal sleeve was retained than it was in the control group. Among the experimental groups (groups 2 through 5), however, with the numbers studied, no significant differences in the volume of regenerate bone could be attributed to the inclusion of bone graft within the sleeve or to vascularized bone chips remaining adherent to the periosteum. CONCLUSIONS: The novel surgical procedure was shown to be effective in bridging a critical-sized defect in an ovine femoral model. Vascularized bone chips adherent to the inner surface of the periosteal sleeve, without the addition of morselized cancellous bone graft within the sleeve, provide not only a comparable volume of regenerate bone and composite tissue (callus and bone) but also a superior density of regenerate bone compared with that after the addition of bone graft.